Chapter 3 - The Description of the Sphere of the Earth and of Bhārata

[Full title: The Description of the Sphere of the Earth (bhūgola) and of Bhārata (sṛṣṭi-bharatakhaṇḍa-prāśastya)]

Nārada enquired:

1. How did the Omnipresent Primordial Deity create Brahmā and others, formerly?^[1] O Sanaka, narrate this unto me, since your worship is omniscient.

Śrī Sanaka narrated:

2. Nārāyaṇa is imperishable and Infinite. He is omnipresent and unsullied. This entire universe consisting of the mobile and immobile beings is pervaded by him.

3. At the time of the first creation,^[2] the self-luminous great Viṣṇu constituting the universe, presided over a differentiation in the guṇas, and created the three forms of the deities.

4-5. Formerly, the Lord created god Brahmā from the right part of his Person, for the purpose of creation (of the worlds), O sage; from the middle, he created Īśāna (the Master) called Rudra, who causes the dissolution of the universe. For the sake of protecting this universe, he created the immutable Viṣṇu from his left side. Some designate that imperishable Primordial Lord by the epithet Śiva, some by the name Viṣṇu (the Eternal Truth), while some call him Brahmā.

6. Viṣṇu’s Supreme Śakti^[3] (Energy) stimulating the process of the universe is both positive and negative (existent and non-existent) in nature, and is described ‘Vidyā-avidyā’ (Spiritual Knowledge and Ignorance or Nescience).

7. When the universe appears as distinct and separate from Great Viṣṇu, that is the accomplishment (effect) of Nescience which is the cause of misery.

8. O Nārada, when the conditioning factors such as the knower, the knowable etc. fuse together, and cease to exist,

the knowledge or comprehension of the oneness of everything (in the universe) i.e. the existence of only one entity, viz., Brahman, is called Vidyā (spiritual lore).

9. Thus the Māyā of the great Viṣṇu, if seen as distinct and separate from him, bestows (i.e. involves one in) the worldly existence, but if realized with the consciousness of nondifference from him, it brings about the destruction of the Saṃsāra (or metempsychosis).

10. The entire universe of the mobile and immobile beings, has been originated from Viṣṇu’s (illusive) potency. All these things whether they move or not arc different from it.

11. Just as, by means of the conditioning factors (such as a pot, a room) the ether differs (as the ether conditioned by the pot, etc.), so also the entire universe appears different through the conditioning factor of avidyā (Nescience).

12. O Sage, even as Lord Hari pervades the entire universe so also does his (potency), just as the burning capacity of a (heated, fiery) coal manifests itself by pervading its substratum.

13. Some call this potency (Śakti), Umā,^[4] others call it Lakṣmī, still others call it Bhāratī, Girijā and Ambikā.

14-15. The great sages designate her as Durgā, Bhadrakālī, Caṇḍī, Māheśvarī, Kaumārī, Vaiṣṇavī, Vārāhī, Aindrī, Śāmbhavī, Brāhmī, Vidyā (spiritual knowledge), Avidyā (Nescience), Māyā (The illusive potency of the Lord) and Parā Prakṛti (The Supreme Primordial Nature).

16. Śeṣaśakti is Viṣṇu’s transcendental power, the cause of creation, etc. of the universe. It pervades the universe in its ‘manifest-cum-unmanifest form’, and abides therein.

17. One of these is the cause of creation, maintenance and dissolution, viz., Prakṛti (The Primordial Nature), Puruṣa, Kāla (Time), Vidhi (abidance of the opportune time or fate) and sthiti (steadiness or continuance in one state).

18. All this (universe) has been created by the deity assuming the form of Brahmā, but it is (authoritatively) stated that the Supreme Deity transcends him and is eternal.

19-22. The God who protects is called the Eternal Deity. The Lord who protects is the Puruṣa, greater than and beyond the worlds. What is greater than and beyond him is the highest imperishable region. (Heis called) akṣara (the imperishable), Nirguṇa (devoid of attributes), Śuddha (pure), Paripūrṇa (perfect, complete) and Sanātana (eternal). The greatest being is called Kālarūpa. He is greater than the greatest, worthy of being meditated upon by yogins. He is the greatest Ātman, the greatest bliss, devoid of all conditioning factors. He can be realised only through perfect knowledge. The greatest Being has Existence, Knowledge and Bliss for his physical bodies.

23. Although he is the greatest and the purest, He is accompanied by the Ego, and is then called dehin (the embodied soul) by persons of confused mind. Alas, the deception of Ignorance!

24. That greatest and purest Lord, on being differentiated through Sattva etc., assumes the forms of three Deities, and causes Creation, Sustenance and Dissolution.

25. The deity who is the creator of the universe is Brahmā. The deity from whose umbilical lotus Brahmā came out is the Ātman, in the form of Bliss. O sage, none except him is so.

26. He is the immanent Soul. He pervades the universe. He is the Cosmic witness. He is unsullied, The great Īśvara abides both as different and non-different.

27. His śakti is the great māyā, the trustworthy upholder of the universe. In view of its being the material cause of the universe, it is called prakṛti by scholars.

28. Of Viṣṇu who was exerting for creation of the the worlds, at the time of the primordial creation, there evolved three-fold forms, viz. Prakṛti (primordial matter), Puruṣa and Kāla (Time-spirit).^[5]

29. What men of purified souls perceive as the pure highest, resplendent asylum called Brahman, is the supreme region of Viṣṇu.

30. The pure, imperishable, infinite Maheśvara in this way assumed the form of Kāla (Time spirit), and with a form constituted of and affording support to guṇas (modifications of Prakṛti e.g. sattva etc.) the omnipresent Lord became the primary creator of the world.

31. When prakṛti became agitated^[6] through the Lord of the world called Puruṣa, the principle of Mahat became manifested. Therefrom evolved the Buddhi (Intellect) from which originated the Ahaṃkāra (Cosmic Ego).

32. From the Cosmic Ego were evolved the subtle primary elements called the tanmātras and the subtle sense organs. All the gross elements were evolved out of the tanmātras for the creation of the universe.

33. Of the elements, viz., the ether, air, fire, water and the earth the former becomes the cause of the latter one, in the due order, O Nārada, the son of the lotus-born god Brahmā.

34. Thereafter, Lord Brahmā, the creator of the universe, (at first) created the tāmasa beings^[7], viz., the sub-human beings such as creatures, beasts, birds, deer, etc.

35. Considering that the Deva-sarga (the creation of celestials) was non-productive and fruitless, god Brahmā the eternal lotus-born deity, conceived of and created the Mānuṣa-sarga (the creation of human beings).

36. Thereafter, he created Dakṣa and other Sons who were exclusively devoted to the task of creation. All this entire universe including gods, demons and human beings, is occupied through these sons.

37. The following seven regions^[8] are stationed above: (above the earth) Bhūḥ, Bhuvaḥ, Svaḥ, Mahaḥ, Jana, Tapas and Satya (each one is above the other).

38-39. There are seven nether worlds,^[9] each below the other, viz., Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talātala, Mahātala, Rasātala and Pātāla. He created the guardians of the worlds also, for all these regions.

40. He duly created the principal (seven) mountains and rivers in each of these worlds, and assigned specific means of livelihood befitting the residence of the respective worlds.

41. The mountain Meru, the resort of all gods, is located at the centre of the surface of the earth. The Lokāloka mountains^[10] form the farthest end (limit) of the earth. In between them are the seven seas.

42. O, prominent Brāhmaṇas! There are seven continents^[11] and each continent has its own (chain of) principal mountains, and well-known rivers flowing therein, and the people thereof resemble the immortals i.e. gods.

43. The names of the continents are: Jambū, Plakṣa, Śālmala, Kuśa, Krauñca, Śāka, and Puṣkara. All of them are regions (traversed by) gods.

44. These seven continents are surrounded by seven

oceans,^[12] each having (for its liquid content) salt water, sugarcane juice, wine, ghee, curds, milk and sweet water.

45. These continents and oceans should be understood (to have dimensions) in this manner: the latter one is double the former one in extent, and the same with the Lokāloka mountains.

46. The continent which is to the north of the salt sea, and to the south of the mountain Himālaya should be known as Bhārata Varṣa—the Indian continent. This continent confers the fruit of all actions.

47. O Nārada! People perform three types of holy acts here, the fruit thereof is enjoyed in the following order: enjoyment of desired pleasures, land and affluence.

48. If any act whether auspicious or inauspicious is performed in Bhārata, the fruit thereof, being of a perishable nature, is enjoyed by the creatures elsewhere (in the other worlds).

49-51. Even today the celestials desire to secure birth in the Bhārata-varṣa. They think, “Great, auspicious, pure and everlasting merit has been accumulated by us. When shall we get the opportunity of being born in the Bhārata varṣa, where we shall attain to the supreme region (i.e. liberation) thanks to the great merits. Through charitable gifts or performance of different kinds of sacrifices or various types of penances, we shall attain to Lord Hari, the Ruler of the Universe, of eternal bliss and free from ailments.”

52. O Nārada! There is no one else in all the three worlds comparable in merits to that person who, after being born in Bhārata, is devoted to the worship of Viṣṇu.

53. A person habitually glorifying Lord Hari or a person beloved of his devotees or one who is eager to render service to the great persons, is worthy of being bowed down by the heaven-born gods.

54. A person delighting in the worship of Lord Hari or his devotees or a person regularly partaking of the leavings of the food of the devotees of Hari, attains to the highest region of Viṣṇu.

55. He who constantly utters the names of Viṣṇu, such as Nārāyaṇa, Kṛṣṇa, and Vāsudeva, and who is quiescent and devoted to non-violence, etc., is also worthy of being saluted by the foremost ones of gods.

56. It is traditionally remembered (i.e. laid down in Smṛtis) that he who constantly remembers (and mutters the divine names) Śiva, Nīlakaṇṭha and Śaṅkara^[13] and is always engaged in doing good to all living beings, deserves to be worshipped by the celestials.

57. One devoted to his preceptors, a person meditating on Śiva, a man engaged in performing the duties prescribed for his own stage of life, one devoid of jealousy and one who is pure, is worthy of being adored by leaders of gods.

58. One who is a benefactor of Brāhmaṇas, one who cherishes faith (in the duties prescribed for) varṇas (classes in society and their duties), one who is ever devotedly engaged in propounding the Vedas, should be regarded as one who sanctifies all persons who sit in the same row to dine with him.^[14]

59. A person who looks upon the pair of the Lords of gods consisting of Nārāyaṇa and Śiva equally without any discrimination, should always be saluted by god Brahmā. What need be said of persons like us? (We must definitely worship him).

60. A person who has established perfect control over his senses and organs, is celibate, refrains from slandering others and invariably abstains from having any possession (or acceptance of monetary gifts), is, O Nārada, worthy of being worshipped even by gods.

61. One who is averse to such censurable acts as stealing, is full of gratefulness, is a man of purity and truthful speech and takes delight in rendering help to others, deserves to be worshipped by gods and demons.

62. He whose mind and intellect are inclined to listen to the exposition of the Vedas and the Purāṇas, and is keen in associating with the righteous persons, deserves respect and salutations from excellent ones amongst the gods.

63. Association with such persons be established by us—with persons who perform such and other sacred rites with perfect faith, in this continent of Bhārata.

64. If anyone, despite being a Brāhmaṇa, does not begin any one of these sacred or holy activities, he is a man of wicked actions, dullard in mind, and none else is more insensible than he.

65. Even after being born in Bhārata, a person who is totally averse to the performance of righteous acts, is like a person who prefers a pot of poison spurning aside the jar of nectar.

66. O sage, a person who does not sanctify himself by performing religious rites prescribed in the Vedas and the Smṛtis is the leader of sinners, confounder of his own self.

67. O prominent sage! After attaining birth in the land of holy rites (i.e. Bhārata), if one does not abide by the path of righteousness (dharma), he is decried as the meanest of all, by knowers of the Vedas.

68. He who eschews auspicious rites and acts and performs evil deeds is (like a person who) abandons (the milk of) the wish-yielding cow (Kāmadhenu) and seeks the milk-like exudation from the sun plant (arka).

69. O leader of Brāhmaṇas! In this way even the inhabitants of heaven like god Brahmā and others who are afraid of the termination of their period of enjoyment of pleasures, praise the land of Bhārata.

70. Hence, the excellent subcontinent of Bhārata should be regarded as exceedingly meritorious. It is accessible with great difficulty even to gods. It bestows the fruits of all holy rites and actions.

71. In the three worlds, there is no one comparable to that person who diligently attempts to perform good and righteous acts in this holy land.^[15]

72. A man who is born in this land and who attempts to destroy and exhaust the balance of his actions in previous birth, is Lord Hari himself in the guise of a man. There is no doubt about this.

73. One who is desirous of attaining the highest worldly benefits or fruits, should vigilantly perform righteous and holy acts. If an act is performed, after dedicating with devotion the fruit thereof unto Lord Hari, that fruit is said to be ever lasting.^[16]

74. If one is devoid of any desire for the fruits of actions, one shall not cause any such acts to be done. He should dedicate a pious and religious act (to Lord Hari) by saying, “May Lord Hari be hereby pleased with me”.

75. All the worlds upto and including the region of god Brahmā are the bestowers of rebirth. But a person who has no desire for the fruit even of meritorious acts, attains to the highest region namely Mokṣa—Liberation from saṃsāra.

76. It is just for the propitiation of the Lord of the Universe, that one should perform sacred rites and actions prescribed in the Vedas as per his stage in life (āśrama). One who is desirous of renouncing all karmas altogether including even those prescribed for his āśrama (stage of life), attains to the Eternal Region,

77. Irrespective of one’s desire for obtaining the fruit thereof, one should perform the holy rites in accordance with the injunctions laid down in the śāstras (for performance of sacred acts). One who is fallen from the conduct of life (performance of duties) befitting the stage of his life, is called “a fallen fellow” by wise persons.

78. A Brāhmaṇa devoted to righteous conduct shines forth with Brahmanical splendour. O Nārada! Lord Viṣṇu also is propitious to him who is endowed with devotion,

79. If, after being born in the continent of Bhārata a person does not redeem himself, he is tortured in the terrible hell as long as the moon, the sun and the stars shine.

80. Real Dharma has Vāsudeva as the highest object. Penance is to be solely devoted to Vāsudeva. Perfect knowledge refers to Lord Vāsudeva and Lord Vāsudeva is the ultimate goal.

81. The entire Universe including the mobile and the immobile beings, from god Brahmā down to a clump of grass, is identical with Lord Vāsudeva. There is nothing else other than he.

82. He alone is god Brahmā, the Creator of the Universe as well as god Rudra, the destroyer of Tripuras (Three Cities). He alone has assumed the forms of gods, demons, and sacrifice. He alone, constitutes this Brahmāṇḍa (Cosmic Egg). There is nothing else that is separate and distinct from him.

83. There is nothing else greater than he. There is nothing more minute or more immense than he.^[17] All this wonderful Universe is pervaded by him. One should bow down to that Lord of gods, worthy of being praised.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

[The Descriptions of the sphere of the earth and if Bhārata]—The description of the creation of the universe is the 1st characteristic of all Purāṇas. The famous verse enumerating 5 characteristics of Purāṇas:

sargaśca pratisargaśca vaṃśo manvantarāṇi ca /
vaṃśānucaritaṃ ceti purāṇam pañcalakṣaṇam //

Is found with slight modifications in K.P. 3.6.25, A.P 1.14, Bhaviṣya Purāṇa (Bhaviṣya Purāṇa) 2.5, M.P.M, Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa-Prakriyā 1.38 etc. Naturally after eulogizing god Viṣṇu, (Nārada Purāṇa. is a Vaiṣṇava-Purāṇa), the Nārada Purāṇa. opens with the 1st topic, viz. creation of the universe, although the chapter is designated by the author as ‘The description of the earth and that of Bhārata’.

[2]:

Though Nārada Purāṇa as a Vaiṣṇava Purāṇa, treats Viṣṇu, as the Supreme Brahman, the theory of the evolution of the universe is strongly influenced by the Sāṅkhya theory of evolution. It is, of course, the Theistic Sāṅkhya and not the Agnostic. In the Primary Creation, the credit of the differentiations of three guṇas, the modes of Prakṛti, into sattva, rajas and tamas, is given to the All-Pervading Viṣṇu who created the functionaries or Agents of the Creation, sustenance and destruction of the Universe, viz. Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Rudra from himself. Vide vv. 4 & 5 below.

[3]:

The Vaiṣṇavi Śakti (the Supreme potency of Lord Viṣṇu) is the real force that stimulates the process (creation, etc.) of the universe. It is noteworthy that the Purāṇa author regards Vidyā (Spiritual Knowledge) and Avidyā (Nescience) as both sides of the same coin as it were. This potency of the Lord is called by various names such as Umā, Lakṣmī, etc. vide vv. 13-15 below. And also of Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa—Kṛṣṇa-Janma-Khaṇḍa 118.35 where Śakti (Pārvatī) tells the Śaiva pantheon: ‘I am Mahālakṣmī in Vaikuṇṭha, Rādhā in Goloka, Śivā in the region of Śiva, and Sarasvati in the abode of God Brahmā.’

[4]:

Although the purāṇa-writer appears to give synonyms of Vaiṣṇavi Śakti, he is actually describing or summarizing the various aspects of this potency. Thus Māyā emphasizes the illusive power, Vidyā, the Spiritual Knowledge, Avidyā, Nescience, Parā Prakṛti, the Supreme Primordial nature, and the Śaktis of various gods like Brāhmā, Aindrī, etc. arc given to emphasize that whatever feats these gods achieve are due to the motive force of Viṣṇu.

[5]:

Kālaḥ svabhām niyatir yadṛcchā, etc.—SV.Up. 1.2

N.P. broadly follows the concept of Time, as delineated in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. e.g. 3-10.11 ff, 3.26.18ff. etc. According to the Bhāgavata Purāṇa., Time is the Supra-phenomenal Reality. It pre-exists creation. Its primary function is to disturb the equilibrium of the guṇas of Prakṛti and thus set in motion the process of creation. It is a complex concept and appears to be a mixture of three aspects—God, the Power of God and the Time sequence. Time as a power of motivation does not simply stop with disturbing the equilibrium of the tri-partite matter (guṇamayī ātmamāyā), but pursues the creative process at every stage. If God is the agentcause of creation, Time is the efficient cause. Creation takes place through the force or operation of Time.

It is classified as:

(i) Prākṛta (material)
(ii) Vaikṛta (elemental) and
(iii) Prākṛta-Vaikṛta (mixed, material-cum-elemental).

The Bhāgavata Purāṇa states that the following 10 types of creations are brought about by the motive-force of Kāla:

I. Prākṛta: (i) mahat, (ii) ahaṃkāra (ego), (iii) tanmātras (subtle senseorgans), (iv) External sense-organs, (v) presiding deities of senses and the mind, (vi) avidyā (with its five ‘knots’).

II. Vaikṛta: (i) vegetations (ii) animals (iii) human beings.

III. Prākṛta-Vaikṛta: (i) Divinely human souls, e.g. Sanatkumāra, etc. It is called Jaumāra sarga.

Viṣṇu Purāṇa 5.1-25, Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa 47 and other Purāṇas enumerate 9 (nine) types of creations as follows:

I. Prākṛta: (i) Brāhma vide mahat of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa (ii) bhūta vide tantmātras of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa (iii) Vaikārika corresponds to (iv) & (v) of Prākṛta creation of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa

II. Vaikṛta:
(i) mukhya or Tāmasa creation of immobiles and immovables: mukhyā vai sthāvarāḥ smṛtāḥ /—V.P. 1.5.21
(ii) tiryak—(birds and beasts)
(iii) deva (celestial beings)
(iv) mānuṣa (human beings)
(v) anugraha—(both Sāttvika and Tāmasa) vide Viṣṇu Purāṇa 1.5.24.

About this II-v Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa.P. 47.28 and Vāyu P. 6.57 state:

pañcamo'nugrahasargaś caturdhā sa vyavasthitaḥ /
viparyayena śaktyā ca tuṣṭyā siddhyā tathaiva ca //

Bhāgavata Purāṇa and other purāṇas agree about the 3rd type of creation.

[6]:

This is the Prākṛta creation.

[7]:

This is the Vaikṛta creation, vide 65 above.

[8]:

These seven lokas represent the different parts of the upper half of the Cosmic Man’s (Virāja-Puruṣa’s body. Vedic cosmogony as found in the Puruṣa (RV.X.90), Nāsadīya (RV X. 129) and Hiraṇyagarbha (RV.X.121) Sūktas presuppose cosmic water, Viṣṇu, the primordial creator and three worlds: Pṛthvī, Antarikṣa and Dyau—the earth, intermediate space and the sky. Bhāgavata Purāṇa. adopted these three worlds as bhū, bhuva and Svar respectively. But the still upper regions mahar, jana, tapas and satya is a later—purānic—contribution. Even Bhāgavata Purāṇa. has vague idea about these four upper regions. They are separated from the lower three worlds by a boundary mountain Lokālokācala which shuts out the light of the sun and other luminaries to these higher four worlds.

These seven lokaṣ are also regarded as the ‘planes’ of existence, the lowest being over terrestrial globe (bhū) and the highest, satya—the region of god Brahmā.—Bhāgavata Purāṇa5.22 V.P. 2.7, Vāyu 50.

[9]:

These represent the lower part of the body of the Cosmic Man. These regions are below our earth and do not receive the light of the Sun (Bhāgavata Purāṇa. 5.24.11). In Atala lives Bala, the son of Maya. Vitala is the region of god Śiva with His divine Consort Bhavānī. In Sutala reigns Bali with Lord Viṣṇu as his door-keeper Mahātala is the region of serpents and Ṛasātala, that of Daityas, Dānavas and Paṇis. Talātala is the residence of Maya, under the protection of god Śiva. The last of the nether-world is Pātāla, the kingdom of Vāsuki, the serpent king. All these regions are held together by Saṅkarṣaṇa (The principle of gravitation (Bhāgavata Purāṇa 5.ch. 24 & 5.25.1). To regard Mexico as Pātāla and identify the Mayas thereof with demon Maya of Purāṇas is only a clever theory of Chamanlal in Hindu America though it must be conceded that he made out a good case for it, Bhāgavata Purāṇa5.24, Viṣṇu Purāṇa. 2.7, Vāyu 50.1-48.

[10]:

Lokāloka mountain:

This mountain is the dividing range between Loka i.e. regions illuminated by the Sun and other heavenly bodies and Aloka—those regions like mahar, jana, tapas and satya which do not receive such light. It is beyond the ‘sea of sweet water’ and encircles it. All the seven great continents and seven oceans etc, lie between Mount Meru and Lokāloka mountain—the distance between them being twelve and half crores of yojanas. The tract beyond the ocean of fresh water’ upto Lokāloka mountain is ‘a land of gold shining like a sheet of mirror. Nothing that goes or is dropped there ever returns’. God Brahmā has posted four big elephants, viz. Ṛṣabha, Puṣkara, Vāmana and Aparājita in four cardinal points beyond that mountain, for retaining the stability of the world—BA.P.5.20.34-39.

[11]:

Seven Continents:

The dominant cosmographical conception of the Purāṇas is th at of the earth consisting of seven concentric island-continents (Saptadvīpā Vasundharā). Each continent has its own chain of principal mountains, river-systems. The names of these continents, as enumerated in the next (43rd) verse, are: Jambū, Plakṣa, Śālmala, Kuśa, Krauñca, Śāka and Puṣkara. This order of dvīpas is found also in PP.2.4, Bhāgavata Purāṇa 5.20 but M.P. 121, 122, Agni Purāṇa. 108.1-3 differs, though all begin with Jambūdvīpa. The following is briefly the Purāṇic conception of these dvīpas:

(1) Jambūdvīpa with mount Meru or Sumeru at the centre and surrounded by the ocean of Lavaṇa (salt water). It is identified with India and the land around it as Bhāratavarṣa—a prominent part thereof is ‘to the north of the salt sea and south of the Himālayas’ (Nārada Purāṇa. 1.3.46 below) and the glorification of this holy land from vv.47-72 below leaves no doubt that India is the land so praised.

(2) Plakṣa—Surrounding the Lavaṇa ocean and surrounded by the ocean of Ikṣu (sugarcane juice).

(3) Śālmali—Surrounding the Ikṣu ocean and surrounded by the ocean of Surā (wine); probably Chaldea—chal-dia < śālmali dvīpa: Ancient region SW Asia on the Euphrates and Persian Gulf (Webster—College Diet. P. 1106), if the derivation recorded by N.L. The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India in GDAM I, p.175 be correct. But the rivers Nirvṛtti and Vitṛṣṇā mentioned by him in Brahmāṇḍa P. Ch.53 are not traced in Jagdish Shastri’s new edition (Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi) either at ch. 19 describing Plakṣadvīpa or ch. 53 as mentioned by The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India at the corresponding ch. therein.)

(4) Kuśa—Surrounding the Surā ocean and surrounded by Sarpis (Ghee) ocean. Purāṇas state that the source of the Nile is in a lake in the Kuśa dvīpa. It is, of course, a region in Africa. Ancient Persian inscriptions mention a country called ‘Kusha’ and its people ‘Kushiya’ “There is no doubt that Kusha was situated in North East Africa beyond Egypt” D. C. Sircar—GAMI P. 25. Probably it is Ethiopia.

(5) Krauñca—Surrounding sarpis ocean and surrounded by the ocean of Dadhi (curds).

(6) Śāka—Surrounding the Dadhi ocean and surrounded by the ocean of Milk. It is obviously the land of Śakas or Scythians of the Greeks. Dr. Ray Choudhary identifies it with Seistan (<Śākasthāna) in Eastern Iran, the land of the Māgi and of the Mihira cult and its inhabitants. The Maga-dvijas worshipped Sūrya-rūpadharo Hariḥ. There had been three settlements of Śakas—modern Mesopotemia, Helmund in Eastern part of Iran and Seistan. D.C. Sircar weighs the evidence and states, “Śaka-dvipa in the original Purāṇic conception...is the Śaka settlement in the Oxus and Jaxartes valleys in Central Asia” (GAMI. P. 25).

(7) Puṣkara—Surrounded by Surā sāgara ‘A portion of Central Asia commencing from the north of the Oxus including Western Tartary. Perhaps it has preserved its name in Bhushkara or Bokhara’—N.L. The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India GADMI, p. 163.

It will be seen that though the idea of concentric islands is poetic, there is some geographical reality about some lands in these Purāṇas. This conception of saptadvīpa vasumati is as old as Patañjali (187-151 B.C.) and has strongly influenced Jain works like Tiloya pannatti: GAM I, pp. 22-24.

[12]:

Seven Seas surrounding these island continents are traditionally mentioned as in V.44-B.

laveṇekṣu-surā-sarpir-dadhi-kṣīra-jalaiḥ samam /

i.e. seas consisting of (1) Salt water, (2) Sugar-cane juice (3) wine, (4) ghee, (5) curds, (6) milk and (7) sweet water. N.L. The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India locates them as follows:

(1) Lavaṇa (salt water): The Indian Ocean surrounding Jambūdvīpa or India.

(2) Ikṣu—(Sugar cane juice). Ikṣu is another name for the Oxus (V.P. 2.4.66 mentions this as a river). The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India explains, “Here the river is taken as a sea.”

(3) Surā (wine)—Corruption of the sea of Sarain, another name for the Caspian sea and it formed the Southern or south-eastern boundary of Kuśa dvīpa.

(4) Sarpis or Ghṛta (Clarified butter)—It is a corruption of the Erythraen sea or the Persian Gulf and formed the boundary of Śālmalidvīpa or Chaldia i.e. Assyria.

(5) Dadhi—(curds): The sea of Aral, Dadhi is Sanskritisation of Dahi (Dahae) the name of a Scythic tribe which lived in the upper Jaxartes and evidently on the shores of ṃis lake, it formed the boundary of Krauñcadvīpa.

(6) Kṣīra (Milk): It is a corruption of Shirwan sea, as the Caspian sea was called, and it formed the northern boundary of Śākadvīpa.

(7) Jala i.e. Svādujala (sweet water)—Perhaps a corruption of Tchadun, a river in Mongolia forming a boundary of or flowing through Plakṣadvīpa—The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India, p. 179.

Rivers and seas were formerly designated by the same word. Hence some rivers came to be understood as ‘seas’ in Purāṇas. The extent of some seas like the Caspian and the Aral were different (much larger than at present) in ancient times. But the unanimous tradition in Purāṇas shows a race-memory and not a geographer’s report of an expedition. The above is enough to show ṃat geography in Purāṇas is not all imagination, but had some basis in reality.

[13]:

Though N.P. is a purāṇa of the Viṣṇu group, it does not show the bitterness of later Vaiṣṇavas against Śiva. On the contrary, it advocates the oneness of Śiva and Viṣṇu both being the forms of Para-Brahman, vv. 4-5 above state that the trinity—Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Rudra are the forms of Nārāyaṇa or Mahāviṣṇu. This is the breadth of outlook consistently shown by the N.P.

[14]:

Paṅkti-pāvana [paṅktipāvanaḥ]: Paṅkti is a row of diners. The Dharmaśāstra prohibits sitting in the same paṅkti wiṃ undeserving persons. But some highly religious persons sanctify the row of diners by sitting with them in the same row for dining. The ‘sanctifiers of rows of diners’ are persons who know the 6 aṅgas of the Veda, who have studied the Jyeṣṭha-sāman, who have enkindled the Nāciketa fire, who know the three madhu verses, who have studied the text called trisuparṇa, who maintain 5 fires, have taken ceremonial bath after finishing Vedic studies (snātaka), know the mantras and Brāhmaṇas of their respective Veda, who have studied Dharmaśāstra and who are born of a woman married in the Brāhma form.

paṅkti-pāvanaḥ ṣaḍaṅga-vij jyeṣṭha—sāmikas tri-nāciketas tri-madhus tri-suparṇaḥ, pañcāgniḥ snātako mantra-brāhmaṇa-vid dharmajño brahma-deyānusantānaḥ //—Gautama dh.Sū XV. 29.

In this jyeṣṭha-sāmaka is the reciter of udu tyam (Ṛg Veda.I.50.1) and ‘citram’ (R. 1.115.1) which constitute the sāman of the Talavakāras. (Haradatta on Gaut. above).

The nāciketa fire is described in Tait. Br. III.1 1.7 & 8 and Kaṭha Up. I. 1.17-18.

Tri-madhu is the reciter of RV. 1.91-6-8 each of which begins with the word madhu. It can, however, be claimed that this term refers to the knower of madhu-vidyā mentioned in Śatapatha BR. IV. 1.5.18 and Br.Up. II.5.16. But this vidyā does not explain the word tri in tri-madhu. trisuparṇa are the anuvākas of Tait.Ar. Q. 48-50 brahmaetu mām, madhu etu mām etc. in this side of the country, but Haradatta alternately suggests the 3 verses in RV. X.114. 4-6 (ekaḥ suparṇaḥ, etc.)

The topic is discussed in Baudhāyana Dh. Sū. II.8.2, Apastamba Dh.Su. II.7.17 21-22, Manu III. 184-86, versified Śaṅkha. Smṛti 14.1-8 MBh. Anuśāsana 90.34, Vāyu P. chs. 79 & 83, and other Purāṇas which give long lists of such ‘sanctifier Brāhmaṇas’. The list in Nārada Purāṇa1.3.57-58 above is already covered in the above-mentioned works.

[15]:

The glorification of Bhārata in the above verses is common to a number of Purāṇas e.g. Brahma Purāṇa. 27.2, 70.21-24, 143.8-H, Viṣṇu Purāṇa. 2.3.2, 22-26. The common verses in these Purāṇas suggest ṃat they belong to some ancient common source

[16]:

Verses 73-76 advocate Niṣkāmakarma-yoga, Nārada Purāṇa insists ṃat a person should perform all the religious rites etc. prescribed for his particular social class (varṇa) and stage of life (āśrama) in śāstras, without coveting for its fruit but should dedicate it to the Lord. As BG 9.27 says whatever one does should be dedicated to Me (the Lord).

yat karoṣi yad aśnāsi yaj juhoṣi dadāsi yat /
yat tapasyasi kaunteya tat kuruṣva madarpaṇam //

As Śaṅkara, the great advaitin happily put it in his famous hymn parā pūjā (ṃe supreme worship)

yad yat karma karomi tat tad akhilam śambho tavārādhanam /

‘Whatever act I do, Lord Śiva, each and everything of it is thy worship.’

[17]:

An echo of upaniṣadic mantra—aṇoraṇīyān mahato mahiyān etc. —Kaṭha 2.2—,2.20, Śvet. Up. 3.20 mahānārāyāṇa 8.3, Kaivalya 20.